ORB Online Encyclopedia
Bibliographies
Children In The Middle Ages
Compiled from Sociofile
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35
Title: Parents' Attitudes towards the Death of Infants in the Traditional
Jewish-Oriental Family
Author: Stahl,-Abraham
Journal: Journal-of-Comparative-Family-Studies; 1991, 22, 1, spring, 75-83.
Abstract: Historians of European culture in the Middle Ages & early modern times
hold different views about the attitudes of parents toward the death of
their infants, respectively, that: (1) it was necessary for parents to
develop emotional distance from their small children because many of them
died in their first few years, & (2) parental indifference toward small
children was a cause of the high rate of mortality. Here, these views are
tested in the case of Jews in the Middle East & North Africa in the
twentieth century, drawing on Jewish-Oriental autobiographical,
ethnographical, & religious texts, & interviews conducted with 30 old women
born in Oriental countries & now living in Israel. Findings support the
first view. 23 References. Adapted from the source document. (Copyright
1991, Sociological Abstracts, Inc., all rights reserved.)
2 of 35
Title: Infants, Children, and Death in Medieval Muslim Society: Some
Preliminary Observations
Author: Giladi,-Avner
Journal: Social-History-of-Medicine; 1990, 3, 3, Dec, 345-368.
Abstract: An investigation of whether the high rates of infant & child mortality
in medieval Muslim society reflected parents' indifference to their
children, or resulted from the harshness & complexity of children's lives.
Two levels of adult reactions to both natural & unnatural child deaths are
described: religious-theoretical & emotional. A genre of writings offering
religious & psychological support to bereaved parents-including poems of
lamentation & consolation treatises-is examined, & indicates that the death
of a child was regarded as a great loss, even in times of plague when rates
of infant & child mortality were high. However, these writings also show a
conflict between emotional grief & the religious attitude of restraint &
self-control, contradictory motifs that exemplify the complex nature of
attitudes toward childhood. Adapted from the source document. (Copyright
1991, Sociological Abstracts, Inc., all rights reserved.)
4 of 35
Title: A Multidimensional Theory of Early Modern Western Childhood
Author: Johnson,-G.-David
Journal: Journal-of-Comparative-Family-Studies; 1990, 21, 1, spring, 1-11.
Abstract: Historical findings on the nature of childhood in early modern times
(1450-1800) are compared for England, France, & the American colonies,
focusing on the effects of modernity on the family. After summarizing
modernization & Marxist theories of the transformation of childhood,
evidence is presented to show that the American colonies & England developed
modern forms prior to France; the single exception was the earlier
experience of fertility declines in France. A multidimensional theory of
childhood change is presented which posits that ecological,
political-economic, & ideological conditions are each necessary to the
development of the full range of aspects that make up modern childhood. 36
References. Modified HA (Copyright 1990, Sociological Abstracts, Inc., all
rights reserved.)
5 of 35
Title: Looking Forward from Aries? Pictorial and Material Evidence for the
History of Childhood and Family Life
Author: Burton,-Anthony
Journal: Continuity-and-Change; 1989, 4, 2, Aug, 203-229.
Abstract: Some evidence supporting Philippe Aries's unique iconographic approach
in his pioneering history of childhood & family life has been reexamined by
art historians for interpretive methodology, revealing new areas for study.
Where consulting existing iconographies would broaden selection of materials
used, & pictorial evidence be better referenced, Aries's methods were
lacking. Although evidence concerning it is useful & plentiful, the "Ages of
Man" theme is only superficially analyzed. On other themes, Aries makes
misguided inferences on too little evidence: eg, the lack in medieval
representations of the family, noted by Aries, does not necessarily imply
that children were ignored or regarded indifferently in the Middle Ages.
Available theoretical frameworks for iconography, (from the social & art
history fields, were not used by Aries, & he disregarded recent revisions in
decoding Dutch genre paintings. Although brilliant insights are found in
Aries's work, a closer examination of other iconographic & three dimensional
material evidence by future social historians will lead to different
conclusions. J. Sadler (Copyright 1990, Sociological Abstracts, Inc., all
rights reserved.)
6 of 35
Title: Fathers' Changing Position in the Law; Die Rolle des Vaters im Wandel
des Rechts
Author: Limbach,-Jutta
Journal: Zeitschrift-fu-Sozialisationsforschung-und-Erziehungssoziologie; 1988,
8, 4, 298-308.
Abstract: A historical review examines changes in a father's legal rights & powers
over his wife & children. Ancient Roman law, medieval Germanic law, Prussian
laws of the eighteenth century, & German/West German laws through the
nineteenth & twentieth centuries are outlined. Once possessing an almost
unlimited power over his family, the father has had to accept, with
increasing urbanization & industrialization, a substantial loss of his legal
authority. Today, as a consequence of Fs' legal equality, he has to share
parental authority with the mother. Moreover, parental authority in general
has been subject to change, as children's rights have been acknowledged, &
parental rights are more bound by duties. 22 References. Modified HA
(Copyright 1989, Sociological Abstracts, Inc., all rights reserved.)
7 of 35
Title: Adoption in the Current Politics of Aid to the Family; L'Adoption dans
la politique actuelle d'aide a la famille
Author: Verdier,-Pierre
Journal: Revue-francaise-des-affaires-sociales; 1980, 34, 3, July-Sept, 63 78.
Abstract: A historical sketch of French legal & social policies toward adoption.
Throughout the Middle Ages & early modern times, adoption was seen as an act
of charity toward orphaned or abandoned children. In 1973 the first law was
enacted to ensure that adoptees were placed in a suitable environment. This
orientation toward child protection lasted well into the twentieth century.
Adoption guidelines were relaxed after World War I & World War II due to the
unusually high number of orphans & the shortage of prospective parents.
Current policies are designed to facilitate the adoption process while
trying to eliminate the causes of unwanted children through better family
planning. Alternatives to adoption are discussed. 4 Tables. M. Meeks
(Copyright 1984, Sociological Abstracts, Inc., all rights reserved.)
15 of 35
Title: Social and Cultural Anthropology; Anthropologie sociale et culturelle
Author: Riviere,-Claude; Stamm,-Anne
Journal: AAnnee-Sociologique; 1986, 36, 435-449.
Abstract: A review essay on Claude Levi-Strauss's Le Regard eloigne ([The View
from Afar], Paris: Plon, 1983 [see IRPS No. 29/85c00528 & 85c00529);
Emmanuel Todd's La Troisieme Planete. Structures familiales et systemes
ideologiques ([The Third Planet: Familial Structures and Ideological
Systems], Paris: Le Seuil, 1983); & L'Enfance du monde. Structures
familiales et developpement ([The Childhood of the World: Familial
Structures and Development], Paris, Le Seuil, 1984); Agnes Audibert's Le
Matriarcat breton ([The Breton Matriarchy], Paris: PUF, 1984); La Naissance,
le mariage, la mort en Anjou, dans la premiere moitie du XXe siecle ([Birth,
Marriage, and Death in Anjou, in the First Half of the Twentieth Century],
Angers: Cahiers de l'IPSA, 1984, 8 Feb); R. Bernard's, M. Buisson's, J.
Camy's, L. Roulleau-Berger's, & G. Vinvent's Education, fete et culture
([Education, Festival and Culture], Presses Universitaires de Lyon, CNRS ERA
631, University Lyon II); A. Fillod's & P. Pages's Temps et saisons. Dictons
de la sagesse populaire ([Time and Seasons: Sayings of Popular Wisdom],
Saint Vidal: Centre d'etudes de la vallee de la Borne, 1983); Francoise Loux
L'Ogre et la dent. Pratiques et savoirs populaires relatifs aux dents ([The
Ogre and the Tooth: Popular Practices and Knowledge Relating to Teeth],
Paris: Berger-Levrault, 1981); Claude Kappler's Monstres, demons et
merveilles a la fin du Moyen Age ([Monsters, Demons and Marvels at the End
of the Middle Ages], Paris: Payot, 1980); Norma Cohn's Demonolatrie et
sorcellerie au Moyen Age. Fantasmes et realites, ([Demon Worship and Sorcery
in the Middle Ages: Fantasies and Realities], Paris: Payot, 1982); Roland
Villeneuve's Les Proces de sorcellerie ([The Witchcraft Trials], Paris:
Payot, 1979); & Gerard Hayart-Neuez's Croyances. Magies et sorcellerie,
d'hier et d'aujourd'hui ([Beliefs: Magic and Sorcery, Yesterday and Today],
Le Coteau: Ed. Horvath, 1983 [see listings in IRPS No. 34]). Some
anthropological works dealing with beliefs prevalent in the Middle Ages, &
also some customs that still survive today in some parts of the world, are
examined. Devil worship, the ever-presence of monsters, the menace of teeth,
the hope of magical solutions to difficulties all seem to have provided
extremes of ecstacy & terror that fulfilled certain basic human needs. It
seems clear that human nature has changed very little since the Middle Ages,
& the failures of modern life to supply nourishment for the imagination is
evident in the poverty of our emotional lives. S. McAneny
17 of 35
Title: On Childbirth: The Vicissitudes of a Primordial Notion; De
l'enfantement: les vicissitudes d'une notion primordiale
Author: Boyman,-Elsa
Journal: Cahiers-Internationaux-de-Sociologie; 1984, 31, 77, July-Dec, 303 321.
Abstract: Myths that shape contemporary mentalities concerning childbirth are
explored historically, from the Greek autochthonous myth through medieval
Christian ones. The magical power of the female to bear children & the
exclusion of the male from this process constitute a threat to
self-professed male superiority. The Greek myth of autochthony declared that
one must be born of the land, not of a woman, to be recognized as an
Athenian citizen. The Greek male aspiration was to give birth without
procreative acts, as the goddess Athena was born of her father. The medieval
Christian church considered women to be the source of depravity & the cause
of man's downfall; they were, however, a necessary evil for proliferation.
Some current attitudes diminish the process of childbirth, or the F's role
in it: childbirth is the greatest accomplishment a woman can aspire to; the
male is the one to plant the seed, while the female merely carries it. With
the advent of feminism & consciousness-raising, more progressive attitudes
are slowly emerging. 10 References. HA Tr & Modified by D. Graves
18 of 35
Title: The Ecology of Mating Systems in Hypergynous Dowry Societies
Author: Dickemann,-Mildred
Journal: Social-Science-Information / Information-sur-les-Sciences Sociales;
1979, 18, 2, May, 163-195.
Abstract: Social & environmental catastrophes such as famine & war, which have a
disproportionate upward effect on male mortality in stratified societies,
lead to strategies for manipulating the sex ratio. Some of these strategies
are examined, such as hypergyny, female infanticide, female celibacy, child
betrothal, & polygyny. Data from China, India, southern France, & other
regions from both the modern era & the Middle Ages are used to show that
these cultural strategies have evolved through time as a concomitant of a
consistent social preference for males. A model of the breeding patterns of
hypergynous societies is included. 1 Figure. D. Dunseath
19 of 35
Title: Images of Childhood in Early Byzantine Hagiography
Author: Abrahamse,-Dorothy
Journal: Journal-of-Psychohistory; 1979, 6, 4, spring, 497-517.
Abstract: Studies in the historical concept of childhood have rarely used evidence
from periods prior to the late Middle Ages, yet knowledge of earlier
attitudes about children are needed by social historians. Analyzed are
details from Byzantine hagiography for four topics: wet nursing, age of
leaving home, education & training of small children, & emotional relations
between parents & children. Genre characteristics of saints' lives make them
a valuable resource: they almost always contain a detailed account of the
saint's childhood & contemporaneous society, & children often benefit from
the saint's miracles. The hagiographical form was adapted from Athanasius's
biography of Anthony by churchmen, & used for several centuries in modified
versions. Examined are models from the fourth, fifth, & sixth centuries
which clearly show the constant threats to children's growth from diseases,
accidents, hunger, & natural calamities. Presented also is evidence of
children's spending many years in public institutions, especially the
church; hypothesized is the powerful effect of years of church & monastery
training upon children. D. Dunseath
20 of 35
Title: Sexuality and Family in Fifteenth-Century France: Are Literary Sources a
Mask or a Mirror?
Author: Jeay,-Madeleine
Journal: Journal-of-Family-History; 1979, 4, 4, winter, 328-345.
Abstract: Our understanding of medieval attitudes toward sexuality & the family
has come primarily from literature of the period. However, for purposes of
social study, this literature is necessarily an incomplete source, since it
does not represent the attitudes of a mostly unlettered public. Analyzed is
the matrimonial system of fifteenth-century France through comparison of
literary texts & documents, eg, folklore, historical works, & theological
treatises. Study of Les XV joies du mariage (The Fifteen Joys of Marriage),
& poetry of the period reveals popular attitudes that reflect the basic
contradiction & ambiguity of Church doctrine: negative views toward
fecundity & positive ones toward fertility. The Church's position is based
both on the caveats of Saint Jerome against sexuality & the three marital
bonuses perceived by Saint Augustine-children, faith, & sacrament (proles,
fides, & sacramentum). Discussed also is the contradictory issue of lineage
in marriage; Claude Levi-Strauss has noted that this conflict was resolved
by an extension of incest taboos to fourth cousins, adopted relatives, &
spiritual relations designated at baptisms. Bibliography. D. Dunseath
25 of 35
Title: The Idea of Childhood and Child Care in Medical Writings of the Middle
Ages
Author: Demaitre,-Luke
Journal: Journal-of-Psychohistory; 1977, 4, 4, spring, 461-490.
Abstract: One source of evidence on medieval attitudes toward children has been
almost wholly ignored: writings of medical authorities of this period.
Substantial pediatric knowledge had already been developed in antiquity, in
the works of such authors as Galen, Hippocrates, Soranus, Oribasius, &
Aegineta. Muslim authors had also discussed pediatrics. The first Christian
writing on this subject appeared in the twelfth century AD. Childhood was
generally divided into three phases: (1) infancy from birth until an age
from six months to two years, (2) second infancy until age seven, & (3)
pueritia until fourteen. Second infancy involved dentition & articulate
speech, while pueritia involved the beginnings of articulate speech &
conscious choice. Childhood ended when the sexes became clearly
distinguished. Physicians stressed the need for newborn children to be
spared too much exposure to the rigors of the extrauterine environment; this
was the primary aim of swaddling. Attention was also given to nursing,
bathing, exercise, & training in speech. Therapeutic techniques avoided most
of the harsh measures taken with adults, favoring dietary treatment &
locally applied medicines. Diagnosis was very limited, but over seventy five
illnesses of children are named in medieval literature. The more readily
used treatments were often genuinely effective, bizarre remedies being used
as last resorts. Attitudes toward education stressed the avoidance of harsh
treatment. Bias against women is widely evident. Pediatrics was actively
studied throughout this period. W. H. Stoddard
26 of 35
Title: Repression and Change in the Sexual Life of Young People in Medieval and
Early Modern Times
Author: Flandrin,-Jean-Louis
Journal: Journal-of-Family-History; 1977, 2, 3, fall, 196-210.
Abstract: In contrast to the notion of progressive sexual liberation in the West,
juvenile sexual activity was increasingly repressed from the late Middle
Ages to the beginning of the twentieth century. Youth, long considered the
time of legitimate sexual activity, became a time of obligatory continence
in the eighteenth & nineteenth centuries. The mean age at marriage rose in
France, especially for girls, up to the end of the eighteenth century. Boys
had already married late, in the cities during the fifteenth century & were
not bound to chastity since they frequented prostitutes freely. The closing
of municipal brothels in the sixteenth century was a major act of
repression. In the country, not only did betrothed couples live together in
several regions, but even before engagement, boys & girls who were to be
married could freely associate with each other, & they had the traditional
means of birth control. Prenuptial frequentation & the cohabitation of
engaged couples had been banned in all regions of France since the beginning
of the seventeenth century. The increase in the number of unwed mothers &
abandoned children since the middle of the seventeenth century in the
cities, & the middle of the eighteenth century in the country, can be
interpreted as a consequence of the closing of the brothels in the cities, &
the breakdown of traditional behavior in the country. The repression of
juvenile sexuality seems to have increased the habit of solitary
masturbation, erotic reveries, & the analysis of feelings which constitutes
the richness of eighteenth & nineteenth century western literature. 2
Appendices, Bibliography. AA Tr & Modified by A. Rubins
27 of 35
Title: The Concept of Childhood in the Middle Ages
Author: Kroll,-Jerome
Journal: Journal-of-the-History-of-the-Behavioral-Sciences; 1977, 13, 4, Oct,
384-393.
Abstract: The question is raised whether the Middle Ages held a view of the nature
of childhood as distinct from adulthood. Evidence is offered from legal
documents, medical writings, & church & monastic chronicles to support the
viewpoint that the special nature of the child was perceived (although with
great ambivalence) as being fragile, vulnerable, & naive, while also
possessing a potential for closeness to God & the supernatural world.
Modified HA
28 of 35
Title: Childrearing among the Lower Classes of Late Medieval England
Author: Hanawalt,-Barbara-A.
Journal: Journal-of-Interdisciplinary-History; 1977, 8, 1, summer, 1-22.
Abstract: The object was to investigate childrearing in lower class
fourteenth-century England. The source is a unique one: the coroners'
inquests into accidental & homicidal deaths. It is virtually the only source
available for studying the childhood of the lower, nonliterate classes of
the Middle Ages. The results of the investigation showed that the stages of
child development indicated in the coroners' rolls are remarkably close to
those blocked out by Erikson. Their motor development &, to a certain
extent, their psychological development is reflected in the sort of
accidents that they encountered. But emotional climate within the lower
class household continues to be elusive. P. Aries's suggestion (Centuries of
Childhood; a Social History of Family Life, New York: 1962) that children
competed for their parents' affection with extended kin & neighbors may be
correct. Homicide statistics certainly indicate that the emotional contacts
which led to fatal attacks tended to be with fellow villagers & friends
rather than family members.
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